Use:  Physical evidence that may be an index to behavior in the past or in the present

Problems:

1.  Have to show that the inferences being made are valid
2. Usually inadequate as a sole data source (too high a level of inference)
3.  Ethical issues may be relevant (e.g., going through people’s trash)

I. Documents

A. made for research purposes (and possibly other purposes).   E.g., student analysis of a case early in the course and a later analysis of a similar case.  

B. made for other purposes than the current research project: 
    1. Public: e.g., birth certificates, census data.   Applications to the university, contributions to online forum.
    2. Private:  e.g., diaries, credit card bills, grades in other courses.

II. Photographs, slides, other images

E.g., student drawings of cells before and after instruction on cell structure.

III.  Recordings

Video/audio: again, made for this research or for other purposes.   e.g., you make a tape of your teaching.  vs.  students prepare short video segments on an endangered animal.  You analyze these for content as well as process.

IV.  Physical Traces (e.g.,  wear on the floor near museum exhibits)
 
Some examples:

Science journals
Lab reports
Science fair posters
Papers
Drawings
Models/Displays
Library use records
Snapshots
Concept maps
Diaries
V diagrams
Test scores
Old text books
Attendance records
Letters
Memos
Official documents
Minutes of meetings
Wear on computer terminals
Yearbooks
A student’s records
Playground wear and tear
Broken lab glass patterns
Worksheets
State Frameworks
Notes home
Disciplinary records
Desktop contents
Scrapbooks
Photo albums
Medical records